Title: Religion, Tradition and Ideology – Pre-colonial South India
Author: Champakalakshmi R
Publisher: Oxford University Press, 2012
(First published 2011)
ISBN: 978-0-19-807059-7
Pages: 638
An encyclopedic
tome from an eminent historian – such a comment would suffice to put the worth
of the book in perspective. Champakalakshmi is a retired professor of the
Jawaharlal Nehru University, but her works in the form of essays, seminar
papers and writings are renowned for the depth of coverage, originality of
thought and references to primary sources. This book, as remarked by Dr. Rajan
Gurukkal, is indeed representative of the knowledge base of a high order and hence
widely accepted and least debated by the experts. It narrates how religion
sprang its roots in the ancient South Indian society, how it was developed and
could elbow out heterodox sects like Buddhism and Jainism, how the concept of
temple came into being and the springs from which its architectural idioms
originated and how a tribal, clan-based society transformed itself into a state
in the modern sense, or medieval sense, rather. The modern world gapes in
wonder at the architectural pinnacle of Brihadisvara Temple in Tanjavur, but
few are aware of the historical undercurrents that fed the masonry of its prime
movement. The chronological span of the work is impressive, as it extends over
nearly two millennia from 300 BCE to 1700 CE, though the depth of coverage is
not uniform over the entire span. We get to know a very good description of the
times from about 500 CE to 1300 CE.
The author begins with a decent introduction
of the subject matter integrated over the period under consideration. The
interval is divided into three broad periods of early historic (300 BCE-300 CE),
early medieval (400-1300 CE) and Vijayanagara (1350-1700 CE). In the earliest
period, gradual Aryanization took place in South India. The development of
religion took three distinct steps in the north – Vedic, Smarta (Upanishadic)
and Puranic. But in the south, the three stages merged into one and came as a
package. The Brahmin proponents of the new religion were faced with firmly
established Shramana religions of Buddhism and Jainism in the south. The lever
to praise the two religions out of the society was provided by the Bhakti
movement that attached much importance to devotion to a personal deity
sanctified in a temple or cult centre located across the territory of Tamilakam.
The evidence for the subtle shift is seen in literature as well, as the hero
worshipping traits of Sangam works gave way to the worship of a transcendental
god. Local gods and cult figures were assimilated to the Puranic pantheon, like
Murugan – an ancient Tamil God – was accepted as the son of Lord Shiva and
goddess Kottavai, being transformed as an aspect of Durga, Shiva’s consort. We
must also note that the Vedic gods of Surya and Indra didn’t have any influence
on the southern mind, as very few temples were devoted to them. The reason for
this disparity is mentioned above, that is, the transition to Puranic gods
occurred only in North India and the reformed religion came as a package to the
South. Even though the Puranic religion was riddled with notions of caste, it
still could establish itself on the people, because of the egalitarian values
professed by Bhakti hymnists who propounded equality of all the disciples
before their god of devotion.
The origin of Bhakti movement coincided with
the establishment of regional states. The kings found legitimation in the new
religious concepts sweeping the countryside. Large temples were constructed
during this period and land grants on a large scale were conferred on them for
maintenance. The Bhakti movement was noted for two major aspects – protest
against the monopolization of divine grace by Brahmins and the hostility to
Buddhism and Jainism. Non Brahmin castes like Vellalas dominated the movement.
The socio-religious concepts of the period changed in the 14th
century with the emergence of Vijayanagara Empire, which was the first
trans-regional state in south India. All regional states like the Cholas and
Pandyas became vassals and were later replaced by the Nayaks, local military
commanders of the Vijayanagara army. This state was also burdened initially
with a legitimating device for their dominance. This heralded a new era in
which Sanskritization worked in full swing and all religious ideas were sought
to be rooted in Vedic postulates. The author brings out a curious argument here
that Shankara, the philosopher born in Kerala and who is credited with
establishment of monastic schools across the corners of the subcontinent, was
unknown till the establishment of Vijayanagara. She argues that Vidyaranya, the
spiritual guru of the founders of the Empire and the chief teacher of Sringeri
monastery was instrumental in finding a base on the teachings of Shankara for
the religious ideology prevalent in his time.
If the author’s arguments are taken at face
value, we have to conclude that the foundations for the present-day religious
lineup of South India were established at the time of Vijayanagara period. It
was the first supra-regional state in the south and needed to have solid
legitimacy on religious sanction. They sought to obtain this with the
Vedicization and Sanskritization of the existing customs, beliefs, rituals and
even deities. Every act of religious persuasion came to be backed by Sanskrit
scriptures and on the philosophical arena, Shankara was coronated as an Acharya
with Vedic roots.
Champakalakshmi devotes special attention to
explain why the Shramanic and heterodox religions of Buddhism and Jainism are
out of the main stream in today’s south India. This makes interesting reading
to those who wonder at the obviously Buddhist/Jain symbols existing in temples
where Vedic rituals are now being followed. The author states that Buddhism
never really took off in the south, but the Jains had a sizable following till
7th - 8th centuries, when the burgeoning Bhakti movement
submerged the isolated outposts of Jainism. Brahamanism could engineer the
coup, because it was prepared to accommodate tribal and regional cults and
deities in its pantheon. Jainism didn’t provide this flexibility and their
belief systems had already solidified hard to offer any accommodation. Royal
patronage soon shifted to Saivism and Vaishnavism. Jains were driven out from
their possessions, sometimes even by violent measures.
The
author limits her description mainly within the confines of the present-day Tamil
Nadu state. No doubt, some of the aspects of Karnataka and Andhra are
considered, but mainly when dealing with heterodox sects who made these regions
their strongholds. Kerala is totally left out and it seems that the professor’s
knowledge of Kerala’s geography is rather limited. Many places in Kerala
indicated in the map showing Vaishnava pilgrim centres are wrongly located.
What’s more, the capital of Cheras, Vanchi is mentioned to be near Karur, Tamil
Nadu, which is the stubborn position taken by many Tamil historians, but which
is not based on fact. The dismal disregard exhibited by the author is all the
more made evident when she discusses the epigraphic evidences from temples in
Kanyakumari district, without stopping to mention the dynasty in Kerala who
created those inscriptions. This outlook sometimes leads to contrary argument
when she describes a painting in which Cheraman Perumal sets on a pilgrimage to
Kailasa, where the king is said to come from Kerala!
The
language is terse, uninspiring and repulsively drab. The book lacks a clear
structure. Even though painstaking research had gone behind the encyclopedic
volume, the effort is made worthless by the author’s lack of imagination. The
chapters, being the product of various seminar papers and essays, are riddled
with repetition and monotony. Absence of an index really curtails the utility
of the book, as there are lots of names, which must have been listed out in an
index. Devoid of an original theme, the book at least would have served as a
handbook, if a comprehensive index was provided. One could only wonder at the
publisher’s dire oversight in not bringing out an index.
The
book is recommended only to serious readers and students of history.
Rating:
2 Star
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