A Short History of Slavery

Title: A Short History of Slavery

Author: James Walvin

Publisher: Penguin, 2007 (First)

ISBN: 9780141027982

Pages: 258

Man is the only intelligent animal. This faculty had helped him rule over all the other species of flora and fauna. Somewhere along the line, he obtained mastery over some of his own species. This took place so long ago, that slavery was an integral feature of social organization from prehistoric times itself. Bereft of all higher intellectual opportunities, this group of people toiled hard, without any avenue for upliftment open to them. The strange fact was that organized religions, which proclaimed genesis of all men from god and hence fraternity, turned a blind eye to this evil custom as an established fact of how a society was economically structured. James Walvin, who is a Professor of History and who had published many works on slavery, tells the story of it over the ages and how it was abolished in 1838 in Britain and its colonies through an act of Parliament in London. Written in a very lucid style, the book however omits the thread of slavery in the U.S, where a civil war was fought and won by Lincoln in the cause of eliminating slavery. This omission is a serious drawback, but the text is otherwise quite enjoyable to read.

Even though nothing is more repugnant to modern ethos than the institution of slavery, it was in fact tolerated and even encouraged as an essential factor in the functioning of classical and medieval societies. It was so much part and parcel of the community that renowned Greek thinkers like Aristotle, and Roman statesmen like Cicero laid out instructions on how to treat them and extract useful work from them, at the same time acquiescing in to a sub-human status for them. Even though the author does not mention India and China, all ancient civilizations thrived on the output of a group of men and women who were treated as property that could be bought and sold. Christianity and Islam actively encouraged the practice, and the followers of those religions instituted trading of slaves, provided the ‘commodity’ being traded belonged to other religions. Again, it must be mentioned that India is not covered in this book not because slavery was non-existent, but Walvin had not turned his attention there. Whites were used as slaves in the beginning, but later, the net was cast in interior Africa. By the middle ages, slavery had gone extinct in Europe. When the New World was discovered, slavery entered a brisk phase in its existence. With the widespread cultivation of sugarcane, cotton and tobacco, massive transportation of slaves took place across the Atlantic. The world developed its sweet tooth for sugar because of the cheap slave labour that went into producing it.

Walvin gives a heartrending account of how slaves were transported and sold in markets like cattle. Hundreds of people were bought from slave traders on Africa’s west coast and transported in slave ships where they were effectively packed in very little space below the deck. Diseases claimed almost a fifth in the journey. The transporters were bent upon getting the maximum number of people across. The British monopoly of Royal African Company transported 120,000 slaves from its inception in 1672 until its closure in 1713. It is estimated that a total of 12 million slaves were taken to Americas till the abolition of slavery in 1838. Of these, nearly one and half million perished in transit. A gruesome tale of throwing the slaves overboard alive is provided in the book. A particular slave ship’s captain found that many of his slave cargo were very sick and beyond redemption. He faced a grim prospect of incurring great loss on his investment. His scheming mind came up with a way out. Insurance companies compensated for cargo that might had to be thrown overboard to save the ship. He fabricated a water scarcity on the vessel and threw nearly a hundred sick slaves alive into the sea. When this case reached the criminal court, the charge was not for mass murder, but as an insurance dispute!

Modernity would stand aghast at the indifferent manner in which even reformed societies quietly went along with the grave injustice meted out to a section of the population with a darker skin tone. Slavery was accepted as a normal thing existing since time immemorial in all countries. As the age of Enlightenment dawned in the 18^th century, dissenting voices began to be heard. At first, Quakers and nonconformists spearheaded the protest, but it was not due to any trace of demur from the religious side. Slavery coexisted with the Bible, as there are many references in the Holy Book on how to treat the slaves well. The only thing that changed was the intellectual background that arose as a direct result of development of liberal thinking and displacement of superstitious religious ideas in the cold light of reason.

Resistance from slaves was also a cause for the abolitionist cause. Slave uprisings were mostly violent outbreaks, which were repressed brutally. The only successful slave revolt took place in Haiti (1791 – 1804) where they usurped power. Abolitionist movement began its efforts in 1783 under Thomas Clarkson, a popular orator and activist. Its cause was led in Parliament by William Wilberforce. The movement saw its ups and downs. Immediately after the French revolution, it lost popular support on the basis that any endeavour to upset the existing social order was akin to revolution. But Clarkson and Wilberforce continued their steadfast crusade, until the British Parliament abolished the slave trade in 1807. But this was only a part of victory. It prohibited buying, selling and transportation of slaves, but didn’t offer any relief to those slaves who were already under white masters in British colonies. The movement continued its ways of educating the public about the ills of slavery. Finally in 1838, slavery itself was abolished, with emancipation provided to all slaves. Other countries resisted the effort, with Brazil as the last to fall in line in 1888.

The title of the book does not do justice to its content. With such a grand title, the book disappoints in that it is only a history of slavery in the British Empire. America after 1776 is not at all covered in this book, along with the heroic civil war fought by Abraham Lincoln against the Southern States who insisted on continuing slavery. Several types of bondages in Islamic countries are also skipped with only a fleeting mention, even though the number and brutality far exceeded those in the Atlantic islands. However, the forced labour in Nazi Germany and Stalinist Russia are included, by pinpointing the sharp lines of similarities between them and slavery. Forced work and involuntary separation of families took place in Mao’s China too under the guise of Cultural Revolution, but Walvin overlooks it. On the other hand, the working conditions of at least some of the slaves quoted were far better than similar provisions for free labour in many developing countries even now. Nurses were stationed to tend to sucking children and their mothers were provided timeout for feeding them. Private property and agriculture were granted to the slaves. Walvin also mentions the economic aspects that caused the end of slavery. By early 19^th century, sugar was abundantly produced in Britain’s Asian colonies, mainly in India, whose produce was much cheaper than Caribbean sugar. The book includes a comprehensive index and a good collection of Notes and suggested books for further reading.

The book is highly recommended.

Rating: 3 Star

In the Line of Fire

Title: In the Line of Fire – A Memoir

Author: Pervez Musharraf

Publisher: Simon & Schuster, 2006 (First)

ISBN: 9780743295826

Pages: 352

Of all the rivalries in the world, that between siblings is the most brutal and often sanguinary. Nothing exemplifies this rule better than the case of India and Pakistan, born on consecutive days in August 1947. The birth of the nations was accompanied by communal riots of the worst kind and millions of people were forcibly exchanged between the two nations. After independence, the social and political life of the sister countries diverged considerably. While India consistently followed a democratic path, Pakistan was ravaged by intermittent bouts of military dictatorship. Military is the most prominent institution in Pakistan and its generals routinely meddle with the political establishment in the role of arbitrators or mediators between political parties who are inept and extremely corrupt. It is strange, but true, that Indians are more familiar with the names of Pakistani generals like Ayub Khan, Yahya Khan, Zia ul-Haq and Pervez Musharraf, than their own, of which most of the Indians can’t name even three. How this paradigm shift took hold after partition? Musharraf’s memoir is excellent in condensing the history of Pakistan in a nutshell and in describing how he came into power. However, it lacks in analytical skill and is not helpful in answering the above question. The author never rises above the level of a soldier in the entire narrative. Musharraf is an India-hater, expressing his vehement opposition in each of the instances he mentions India. This is quite understandable too, as he himself had migrated to Pakistan during the post-partition trauma. Even with this background, it is commendable that the author has never made any comparison between his country and India anywhere in this book. This work is eminently readable as it explains how power is changed hands so haphazardly and arbitrarily in a country that stockpiles nuclear weapons with none of the bothers of non-proliferation. The greatest service this book offers to the cause of Pakistan is its rhetoric that the majority of people in that country are enlightened moderates and shun terrorism with equal fervor as the rest of the world.

The book is full of self-promotion, hype, masking of vital facts, lies and half-truths. An excellent case in point is Musharraf’s coverage of the Kargil conflict. He begins by asserting fraudulently that Pakistani troops and Kashmiri freedom fighters (his euphemism for terrorists sneaking in from across the border) occupied the forward positions in Kargil in response to an alleged Indian attempt to occupy unguarded positions in winter. What the author fails to mention is that Pakistan army’s maneuver was designed to thwart the civilian Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif’s overture to India for ensuring peace and a cooperative chapter in the relation between the two countries. What the Pakistan military dreads most is a peaceful relationship with India, as the entire military establishment of Pakistan is built up on fear of India among the masses. People ignore the fact that their army was at the receiving end of one of the world’s worst military defeats when very senior officials with about 91,000 troops unconditionally and meekly surrendered to the Indian Army in East Pakistan in 1971. The rest of the Pakistan army fumed over the incident – as the author also did – but watched impotently as their country was cut neatly into two like a cake and one part granted freedom by India. Musharraf ridicules India on the number of casualties it suffered in the Kargil conflict, which were 600 by India’s own admission. He says that the actual figure was nearly double that (p.98), but nowhere in the book discloses the actual casualties on the Pakistani side, even though he claims boastfully that the assertion that Pakistan had suffered many deaths is a myth.

Anyone reading the book is painfully reminded about the active role played by the military in establishing fundamentalist religious law in Pakistan. General Zia ul-Haq encouraged radical mullahs to take over the country, to preempt action from genuine political parties. His successors trained and funded the Mujahideen fighters in Afghanistan against the Soviet Union, of course, with overt American support. He introduced lashing as a form of punishment as prescribed by Sharia, in which senior military officials witnessed the punishment having tea and snacks from an enclosure reserved for them. Musharraf writes of one incident in which he ordered tea and cakes to be taken away, in disgust. The army took over government at will. This was helped in no small measure by the politicians who were corrupt to the hilt. Democracy is a stillborn in Pakistan, in which the army allows a few years of democratic rule whenever they become tired of administration all by themselves. Even in the top brass of the army, bargaining and campaigning for tops posts prevails, as Musharraf himself, in all probability, inveigled himself on Nawaz Sharif, who was the then prime minister, to ask for the resignation of the army chief Jahangir Karamat any bypassing the seniority of the Chief of General Staff, to confer on himself the coveted post of army chief. As noted by the author himself, Karamat even refused to talk to him immediately after stepping down. Musharraf feigns ignorance at the reason for summons from the Prime Minister’s Office at night, which was to elevate him to the top army post! This was laughable due to its insincerity which was too plain and obvious. However, Pakistan’s army chiefs have a habit of biting the hands that feed them. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto made Zia ul-Haq the military chief bypassing many senior officers. A short time later, Haq usurped power and hanged Bhutto after a sham trial. Similarly Nawaz Sharif made Pervez Musharraf the army chief over the heads of many. Hardly a year later, Musharraf repaid the debt – by dethroning Nawaz Sharif and driving him to exile in Saudi Arabia. Such are the antecedents of a nation that possesses nuclear capability!

 Musharraf explains in detail the economic reform measures he had instituted to save the country from the brink of bankruptcy. The results are impressive, if the data is accurate and trustworthy. As CEO of the country, he had to face a referendum that confirmed him as the president of the nation. This was widely rigged and it is amusing to hear the author say ‘overenthusiastic administration officials and bureaucrats allowed people to vote more than once, and filled ballot papers themselves” (p.98). He even alleges that opposition parties stuffed ballot boxes in his favour, so as to provide evidence of malpractice!

The discussion on growth of terrorism and counter-terrorism initiatives is very informative. This presents a very serious point to ponder for India, as the author affirms that Muslims of south India are very active participants in Afghan terrorism (p.212). The author must have been very fond of crime stories, as seen in the quite large number of episodes described, where the terrorists were nabbed by intelligence agencies. This also proves that Pakistan’s security forces are also compromised to terrorist ideology as seen in the easy infiltration by extremist elements. While accepting the inevitable fact that terrorism needs to be stamped out, Musharraf declares that Muslims are drawn to militant ideology because of “revulsion at the sheer pathos of the Muslim condition, the political injustices, societal deprivation and alienation”. He also feels that for terrorism to vanish, injustices against Muslims are to be removed! This is a simplistic argument bordering on naiveté and retelling the terrorist creed in softer words. It assumes that Muslims of all countries are politically homogeneous and Muslims in Indonesia or Somalia are equally outraged against the supposed injustices in Palestine or Kashmir. All religions are more or less victims to these inequities in various scales, but why terrorists originate only among Muslims?

As can be seen in the above discussion, this review has been somewhat harsh on Musharraf, his book and Pakistan itself. But one thing must be conceded on his behalf. Apart from while addressing contentious issues, there is a raw frankness and energy in his style. Not at all hesitant to take up physical challenges, he has assimilated a dynamic approach to problem solving, which is refreshing. His insight on why Pakistan was created is illuminating, which “was built as a refuge and homeland for the Muslims of India to escape Hindu economic and political domination and social discrimination” (p.136). However, the author is not at all candid while discussing his army’s disastrous involvement in the Bangladesh crisis. Gruesome tales of rape, murder and pillage unleashed by Pakistani soldiers are not at all mentioned.

The book is written mainly with American readers in mind as can be guessed by the inordinate stress on the presence of democratic institutions and social accommodation in Pakistan. Imperial units like mile and feet are continuously used alongside metric units, as can be seen in books originating in the U.S. The author takes great pains to ‘prove’ to the English-speaking world that each one of his cabinet colleagues could speak fluent English. At the same time, he doesn’t show political foresight required of a politician. He asserts that Nawaz Sharif committed political suicide by trying to oust him by diverting the commercial jetliner he was travelling in, to India and hoping to crash the aircraft with an empty fuel tank. Sharif was ousted by the army and forced into exile in 1999. Writing in 2006, this was how the scenario looked like. But we now know that Sharif indeed made a comeback and a few years later, it was Musharraf’s turn to go into exile. The book is written in a simple, yet elegant language and a good index adds much value to it.

The book is highly recommended.

Rating: 3 Star

Temples of South India

Title: Temples of South India

Author: K R Srinivasan

Publisher: National Book Trust India, 1985 (First published 1971)

ISBN: 9788123722511 (not this edition)

Pages: 246

South India is a land of magnificent temples built in stone. Temples of the Chalukya, Hoysala and Vijayanagara period fills thousands of visitors with wonder, while those of Cholas and Pallavas make them awe-struck. South India’s temple architecture is quite unique and is in marked contrast with that of the North. Srinivasan tells the story of the evolution of the temples and the characteristics of each stage. Temple construction generally follows the raw material available at each location. The Vijayanagara kings used granite available locally in plenty, and in Kerala, laterite was the prime choice. However, we also see subtle shifts like the soap stone temples of Hoysalas giving way to Vijayanagara’s granite. Even with all these, the South Indian temple architecture is chronologically uninterrupted. K R Srinivasan has served over two decades in the Archeological Survey of India, in various capacities at the highest levels. One of the fields of his specialization was temple architecture, sculpture and iconography.

The earliest form of divine worship began in the form of totems. Ruling houses adopted various trees as sacred, and Sangam literature show abundant proof of cutting down the totem tree of the vanquished house in battle. Hypaethral shrines (having no roof) developed around these trees. Was it a coincidence that the worship of the Bodhi tree, known as Bodhi Chaitya, quickly took root in the South? Ashoka’s inscriptions witness to the fact that Buddhist influence was largely limited to the present states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Viable and tolerant kingdoms existed to the further south, and Buddhism found a fertile field to spread its roots. Railings began to appear around the object of worship under the tree, which was later transformed into the cloister galleries surrounding the central shrine and its vimana (tower). Brick, wood and mortar shrines were built in place of the simple objects of worship as time went on. Mayon (Vishnu), Seyon (Murugan, Karthikeya) and Korravai (Durga), who were the principal deities of the Tamil country, were assimilated into the Hindu pantheon, with the new names given in brackets. Rock-cut architecture developed around the middle of the first millennium CE. This assumed epic dimensions under the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in Deccan. While soft stone was generally used there in this period, granite or gneiss was the favourite medium of artistic expression in the Deep South. Deccan also followed suit only during the Vijayanagara period. Pallavas excelled in this new medium, as attested by the glorious monuments at Mamallapuram. After 730 CE, when the Pallava power declined, rock-cut architecture also parted ways with the main stream. Objects of worship also underwent a sea change, progressing from mural paintings on the innermost wall to idols of stone or metal.

Srinivasan includes an exemplary narrative on the structural stone temples that came into vogue towards the end of the 8^th century CE. The familiar figure of the dancing Nataraja, which is now practically an icon of India, took shape in this period. The characteristic anadathandavam pose was first observed in the Tiruvaliswaram panel of 890 CE. The author states that most likely the pose was represented first as a wooden idol, but was first captured in stone in 890 CE. As rock-cut temples faded away, an enclosing wall was required for protection for structural stone temples. Towers (gopura) outshining the central one over the sanctum sanctorum (vimana) appeared by 11^th century CE. Parts of the vimana became standardized in architectural texts as adhishtana (moulded base), pada or bhitti (pillar or walls), prastara (entablature with kapota or cornice), griva (neck or clerestory), sikhara (root) and stupi (finial). The period up to late medieval phase is divided into three parts. The first one saw construction of structural temples at Pattadakkal and other northern areas. Then came the second phase when Chola marvels came up at Thanjavur and other places in Tamil Nadu. The Hoysalas continued their tradition with soft stone while the royal Cholas were writing poetry in hard granite and charnockite. The final stage saw the budding of Vijayanagara style in which hard stone, which was abundantly available at their capital at Hampi was used. Befitting the style deserving an empire, Vijayanagara propagated the transition from soft to hard stone. The book also includes a good discussion on the prasada temples built in North Indian style. These are, of course, distinct from Dravida architecture, but are themselves much different from specimens found in North India proper. The book ends with a chapter on Kerala temple architecture, which is replete with laterite stone available in the area and whose gables are more adaptive to heavy rains, which is a feature of the western littoral.

We know that a picture is worth a thousand words. K R Srinivasan doesn’t seem to subscribe to this view. Where an illustration would do wonders at comprehension, he proceeds with torturous verbal description of the architectural features, which is difficult to assimilate. Such plays of words confuse the readers, whereas an illustration would have served the purpose in no time. Monochrome plates of several South Indian temples are included, but serves no real purpose. Historically, many temples were destroyed by Muslim invasions, and true to the pseudo-secular traits inherited from the powerful caucus that ruled over historical research in India, Srinivasan struggles for euphemisms to describe the devastating ruin inflicted on several temples. Instead of writing simply as ‘Muslim invasion’, he does an acrobatic act and comes up with ‘political invasion by iconoclastic rulers of alien faith’ (p.170)! Leftist historians are afraid even to assign religious reasons for the invasions of medieval fanatic sultans! India’s so called secular scholars are extremely reluctant to stare right in the face of truth and fondly go for such pedantic nonsense. The book includes a fine glossary which is highly useful and an excellent index. The book is difficult for the average reader to easily move forward.

The book is recommended.

Rating: 2 Star